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>> WE OBSERVED THOUSANDS

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AND THOUSANDS OF CHANGES

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AT THE MOLECULAR AND GENETIC

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LEVEL WHEN SCOTT KELLY

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WAS IN SPACE.

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[ MUSIC ]

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WE OBSERVED CHANGES IN SMALL

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MOLECULES IN THE BLOOD STREAM,

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CHANGES IN HOW GENES GO UP

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AND GO DOWN, UH, CHANGES

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IN HOW DNA WAS PACKAGED.

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THE TELOMERES GOT LONGER.

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THE MICROBIOME IN THE GUT

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CHANGED.

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WE SAW STRESSORS IN THE BODY,

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CHANGES IN HIS VISION.

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AND ALSO, WE'VE BEEN LOOKING

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INTENSELY AT IMMUNE CELLS,

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WHICH ARE NOTORIOUSLY ADAPTIVE.

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AND SO WE KNOW THAT

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THESE CELLS ARE EXPECTED

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TO CHANGE.

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[ MUSIC ]

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>> THIS IS THE FIRST TIME EVER

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THAT WE'VE STUDIED

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A TWIN IN SPACE FLIGHT

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AND ONE ON THE GROUND.

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SO WE HAVE THE SAME GENETIC

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BACKGROUND IN BOTH INDIVIDUALS,

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AND ARE NOW LOOKING AT

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HOW THE ENVIRONMENT, UH,

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CHANGES THINGS-- IN THIS CASE,

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SPACE FLIGHT.

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THE GENE EXPRESSION

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IN SCOTT'S WHITE BLOOD CELLS

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CHANGED IN FLIGHT.

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7% OF THE GENE EXPRESSION

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PERSISTED SIX MONTHS AFTER

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HIS FLIGHT.

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SO GENES ARE NOT ON OR OFF.

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THEY'RE THROTTLED, LIKE

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YOUR AUTOMOBILE ENGINE.

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7% OF 'EM WERE THROTTLED

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IN A DIFFERENT POSITION

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EVEN SIX MONTHS AFTER FLIGHT.

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>> YOU KNOW, 7% OF GENES

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SOUNDS LIKE A LOT, BUT

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IT'S IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER

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THAT IT'S THE GENES

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JUST CHANGING THEIR EXPRESSION,

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GOING UP AND DOWN.

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SO SCOTT AND MARK KELLY

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ARE STILL IDENTICAL TWINS.

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UH, THEY MAY HAVE HAD CHANGES

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IN THEIR CHROMOSOMES--

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SO HOW DNA IS PACKAGED--

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BUT AT THE END OF THE DAY,

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THEY'RE STILL GONNA LOOK LIKE

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EACH OTHER.

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THEY'RE DEFINITELY STILL TWINS.

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THE REALLY BIG QUESTION IS,

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WHAT ABOUT THREE YEARS?

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DOES-- SHOULD WE EXPECT TO SEE,

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YOU KNOW, BASICALLY THREE TIMES

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THE NUMBER OF CHANGES,

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TEN TIMES THE NUMBER OF CHANGES?

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REALLY, WE-WE DON'T KNOW

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AT THIS POINT, 'CAUSE THIS IS

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THE FIRST STUDY OF ITS KIND.

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THIS SETS THE BEDROCK

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OF KNOWLEDGE FOR ALL THE FUTURE

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ASTRONAUT STUDIES.

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THE VISION OF THE FUTURE

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WOULD BE YOU LOOK AT

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THE ENTIRE GENETIC CODE,

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ALL THE MOLECULAR STRUCTURES

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AND CHANGES IN AN INDIVIDUAL,

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AND THEN CUSTOMIZE

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WHAT HE OR SHE WILL NEED

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FOR LONG-TERM MISSIONS.

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SO THIS COULD BE PHYSICAL

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CHANGES TO HOW THEY DO

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EXERCISE, AND ALSO EVEN JUST

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HOW THEY, UH, TAKE VITAMINS,

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AND HOW THEY EVEN DO--

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MANAGE THEIR MICROBIOME.

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REALLY, EVERY MOLECULE

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IS FAIR GAME FOR MAKING SURE

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IT'S CUSTOMIZED

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FOR EACH ASTRONAUT.

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[ MUSIC ]

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>> THIS RESEARCH HELPS US

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IN EXPLORATION BY UNDERSTANDING

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HOW THE HUMAN BODY AND MIND

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RESPONDS TO SPACE FLIGHT.

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THE SPACE STATION IS

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OUR STEPPING STONE

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TO FURTHER JOURNEYS